Using Others' Voices
The aims of this material are for you to:
Task 1: Vocabulary
Use the following words to complete the sentences below.
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AREAS |
CONDUCTING |
EVALUATE |
IDENTIFIED |
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INCORPORATING |
RELEVANT |
SOURCE |
SUFFICIENT |
Task 2: Reading for Main Ideas
When you have read the text below, explain the idea of 'using others' voices' to your partner.
As part of any academic or report writing it is likely that you will need to do some research. The research may take the form of 'primary data collection' (conducting your own interviews, questionnaires or surveys), 'secondary data collection' (using statistics and data collected by other people) or 'academic research' (using information form printed sources). When you report the findings of your research, in the form a report or an essay, you will need to include the research information that you have gathered. If you do not mention the research in the report you will have wasted your time doing it in the first place. Reporting research allows you to use other people’s voices in your own writing to support what you want to say.
Imagine that you have to make a presentation. You could stand in front of the audience and say whatever you like, but you are only one person. You may have strong views, and you may think you have a good argument, but you are just one person whose views are worth the same as any other person. Now, imagine that during your preparation you found an important scientist who had published a lot of books on your subject. If he or she could say a few words of support at your presentation this would surely impress a lot of people. Your opinion would then be worth more against the opinions of the people in the audience. If you could then find some data that either you or a professional had collected which would support your opinion, people in the audience would have to listen to you, even if they did not agree. If some more experts from different areas (perhaps a government minister and an important social worker) stood up and said how much they agree with you, that would really impress the audience.
Writing a paper is not very different from giving a presentation. Your argument still stands on how well it is supported. The quality and amount of data, expert opinion, and facts will have a direct influence on how persuasive your writing is. Imagine your writing as using your voice to say something. Using sources adds more voices to the writing. Adding some statistics, what an expert says on the subject, or the results of research will make your argument stronger.
If, however, it is not clear to the reader that they are reading the opinion or findings of an expert then you have wasted your effort in finding, reading, understanding and taking notes on a source, and incorporating the information into your writing. You need to tell your reader what is opinion, fact or the results of research and what is your voice, the voice of an expert, a pressure group, or a politician. In order to make your voice clearer, and to allow your reader to evaluate how reliable the other voices are, you need to acknowledge all sources. Acknowledging sources is not difficult, but there are different ways of doing it. The basic rule is to make sure that you provide sufficient information for the reader to find the source, if they want to.
There is no shame at all in admitting that the ideas in a piece of writing are not completely original - very few ideas are. In fact there are many good reasons for acknowledging your sources, including:
However, it is considered an academic 'crime' to take other people's ideas and voices without giving a few words of thanks, that is without acknowledging the writer or researcher. Some academic institutions consider it a crime to use another person's voice and pretend that it is your own. They call it 'plagiarism', and consider it a kind of cheating. The punishment for this crime can be reduction of grades, failure in a course, disciplinary action or even expulsion from the institution.
Acknowledging a source allows you to use other people's voices in your writing in order to make your argument stronger. It gives your voice more authority and makes your argument more persuasive, just as if you had a friendly expert to support you in a presentation.
Task 3: Discussion
3.1 Check your answers to task 1.
3.2 What different ways of acknowledging sources do you know?
3.3 Why do you think some people have been thrown out of university for copying other people's words?
3.4 How useful is the idea of 'Other People's Voices' when thinking of writing a paper?
3.5 How are sources used in newspapers?
Task 4: Language Analysis
Question Words
4.1 Write down all of the 'question words' that you can think of.
4.2 Underline all examples of question words in the text.
4.3 How many of these examples are used to ask a question?
4.4 Look at the word order after the question words. Where are the verb and the subject? Is this different from a question? Why?
Verb Forms and Verb Tenses
4.5 Underline all examples of Verb2. (Give=Verb1, Gave=Verb2)
4.6 How many of these talk about the past?
4.7 What do the other examples of Verb2 describe?
Verb+ing Used To Start a Sentence
4.8 Underline all examples of Verb+ing used to start a sentence.
4.9 What do you notice about all of these examples?
Vocabulary
4.10 Use the correct form of a word from the text to finish the descriptions below. For each exercise (a, b & c) you need only one word.
Sample Essay: Columbus’ Discovery
Below you will find an essay with the same title as the one that has been given to you. When you read it for the first time try to think about how it uses other voices to give its views. Then complete the analysis tasks at the end of the text.
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Columbus’ Discovery of America Significantly Changed the History of the World Columbus, supported by the King and Queen of Spain, began his first journey to America towards the end of the 1400s. He planned to travel to India and Japan by heading west from Europe. He planned to cross the Atlantic Ocean but he ‘discovered’ America by accident. He did this because he didn’t know that there was a continent ‘hidden’ between Europe and Asia. This accident, however, proved to be one of the most valuable ‘discoveries’ of human history and little did Columbus know that the islands he had discovered would become the most powerful country in the world. In fact, there is a debate as to whether Columbus ‘discovered’ America at all. The continent Columbus reached by accident was populated by a number of native tribes (mistakenly referred to as Indians) and civilisations. These people had lived in and worked the land for centuries prior to the arrival of Columbus and other explorers from Europe (Cassidy, 1992). As such, it is difficult for us to say that Columbus ‘discovered’ America. He simply visited a continent that had been hidden from Europe for thousands of years. Even if we do agree with the ‘discovery theory’, many researchers have claimed that Central America was colonised by the Afro-Phoenicians almost 2000 years ago (Heyerdahl, 1993; Daily Illini Online, 1995). Also, there are the theories that Vikings discovered Canada and New England in 1000 AD. If this theory is correct, Columbus was not even the first European to step on American soil (Wallace, 1996). However, we would need to save this discussion for another paper or essay. In terms of accepted world history, it was Columbus who discovered the ‘earthly paradise’ of South America in 1492 and is this date which acts as one of the watersheds in human history. In many ways, the discovery (or re-discovery) of America in 1492 marked the rise of Western Civilisation over that of the East. Before the mid-1400s, the Chinese had built an empire, which was superior to any Europe had to offer. The Chinese were technologically more advanced and had travelled as far as Africa. They decide not to travel up to Europe as it had so little to offer in terms of trade and also because the people of Europe were so ‘culturally backward’. China, for example, had a navy of over 3,500 ships in the year 1400. This compares with the 325 ships in the US Navy of today. The ability of the Chinese to explore the world is also illustrated by the famous Chinese explorer Zheng He. He had an armada of 300 ships with over 28,000 sailors. This compares with the 3 ships and 90 sailors that Columbus first took to America. China was ready to become the world power that the USA is today up until the 1420s. The problem was that Chinese leaders, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, decided to isolate China from the rest of the world. They destroyed the greatest Navy in the world and halted shipping during the 1430s. Although Columbus’ discovery did not cause the decline of China, it is clear that his journey came at a time that allowed Europe to grow as a world power (Kristof, 1999). With the isolationist policies adopted by China, the West had little serious competition. It is widely accepted that the 1492 voyage "planted the first seeds of the Spanish Empire in America and inspired other explorers to venture into new frontiers." (Elmore, 1992). Columbus made a number of journeys to the Americas after 1492 and all of these were to gather wealth and to increase the power and influence of Spain. Hernando Cortes followed Columbus and colonised Mexico in 1518. Portugal, France and Britain followed Spain. In this way, we can see that Columbus’ expedition was important because it marked the beginning of the exploitation of America by Europe. It was this exploitation that was to enrich Europe and also to prepare the groundwork for the rise of the richest and most powerful country in the world at the start of the 20th Century. It is this exploitation which led to the most significant change in human history and this is perhaps the way in which Columbus’ expedition began ‘economic genocide’. Miller (1966) has claimed that Columbus (and those who followed him) travelled to America as part of a "quest for identity, dignity and individual freedom". However, the actions of these colonists suggest their only motive was to enrich themselves and their countries. In doing this, Columbus began what has been called the ‘American Holocaust’ (Stannard, 1992). Columbus and other colonists started the most massive act of genocide the world has ever seen as they murdered millions of native Americans. Columbus himself was directly responsible for the deaths of almost 3 million Arawak Indians in Haiti. Cortes, during his stay in Mexico, was also responsible for the destruction of the Aztec civilisation of almost 25 million people. The Europeans were able to cause so much damage because of their modern weapons and because they brought smallpox, typhoid fever, measles, etc to the natives. The natives had never had any contact with these ‘illnesses of the white man’ and they died in the thousands. In addition to the genocide begun in the 1500s, Columbus can also be credited with introducing international slave trading to the modern world. He began this by transporting 25-30 native Americans to Spain on his first visit and steadily increasing numbers. Later explorers were able to transport thousands of slaves per year from Africa to meet the growing labour needs of the New World. In conclusion, while it is true that the ‘discovery’ of America did alter the course of human history significantly, it has not been the success story the history books have traditionally told us about. The discovery of America was perhaps the start of the rise to power of the West, initially in Europe and then in the USA herself (even though this is more the result of China’s self-imposed isolationism). However, this success story has been at the expense of human lives. Both native Americans and Africans have suffered at the hands of Europe. Do riches and power ever justify such a heavy human cost? Written by Tony Gurr References
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Task 5: Analysis
5.1 Write an outline for the essay.
5.2 How many times does the writer acknowledge sources?
5.3 How many different ways does the writer use to acknowledge sources?
Task 6: What were your answers to question 3.2 "What different ways of acknowledging sources do you know"? Discuss them with the class.
Information from a source can be converted to a voice in our writing in three ways. The first is to take the words directly from the source. This is called a direct quotation. When you are taking notes from source you should always look out for good quotations. You can use a quotation in your writing for any of the following reasons:
A direct quote, however, needs to be introduced well and still needs to be part of your argument.
Task 7: Direct Quotation
7.1 Find direct quotations in the passage.
7.2 How do you know they are direct quotations?
7.3 What words are used to introduce the quotations?
7.4 What must you do to show that you are quoting someone?
7.5 What information has been provided to help the reader locate the original source?
7.6 What other information is required?
7.7 Where will the reader find this information?
The second way to incorporate others people’s voice into your own writing is to use another person’s ideas, with the same amount of detail, but with your own words. We can call this an indirect quote. The easiest route to an indirect quote is to take notes from a source making good use of abbreviations, ‘telegraph’ phrases and your own symbols and conventions. One example from the sample essay describes how Columbus’ journey opened the way for European expansion, at the expense of the East, especially China.
From the text "When the East Led the West" (Kristof, 1999) we find out that:
"The first [reason that China did not continue exploring] is that Asia was simply not greedy enough."
"When the Confucian scholars reasserted control in Beijing and banned shipping, their policy mistake condemned all of China."
"In contrast to Asia, Europe was consumed with greed. Portugal led the age of discovery in the 15th century largely because it wanted spices…"
"If ancient China had been greedier and more outward-looking, Asia might well have dominated Africa and even Europe."
These extracts were not used as direct quotes because:
The information from the source was used to conclude the section which explains how Columbus was the first to reach America in that period of history only because other, more capable sailors, did not have the same motivation. The section in the essay becomes:
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Although Columbus’ discovery did not cause the decline of China it is clear that his journey came at a time that allowed Europe to grow as a world power (Kristof 1999). |
Task 8: Another example is explored in detail below. Read the paragraph and describe to a partner how the writer has combined what he wants to say with the other voices.
What I want to say:
The idea that Columbus discovered America is in doubt. Other people lived there and different sources suggest that other people travelled from African and Europe to America (long) before Columbus.
What I know:
America (& West Indies) was not empty of people before Columbus.
Others could have made journeys to America, from Africa (as shown by Thor Heyerdahl) and maybe from Europe (after all it is not far from Iceland to the North American coast).
What the sources say:
Thor Heyerdahl & Daily Illini: Africans, from ancient Egypt, had the technology; there are enormous similarities in the cultural symbols of the Egyptians and Incas & Aztecs of South America.
Wallace: There is evidence that Norse (Scandinavian) explorers sailed to North America.
The above information was combined in the sample essay in this way:
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In fact, there is a debate as to whether Columbus ‘discovered’ America at all. The continent Columbus reached by accident was populated by a number of native tribes (mistakenly referred to as Indians) and civilisations. These people had lived in and worked the land for centuries prior to the arrival of Columbus and other explorers from Europe (Cassidy, 1992). As such, it is difficult for us to say that Columbus ‘discovered’ America. He simply visited a continent that had been hidden from Europe for thousands of years. Even if we do agree with the ‘discovery theory’, many researchers have claimed that Central America was colonised by the Afro-Phoenicians almost 2000 years ago (Heyerdahl, 1993; Daily Illini Online, 1995). Also, there are the theories that Vikings discovered Canada and New England in 1000 AD. If this theory is correct, Columbus was not even the first European to step on American soil (Wallace, 1996). However, we would need to save this discussion for another paper or essay. |
If we look at the paragraph in detail we find the following points:
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Line from paragraph |
Explanation |
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In fact, there is a debate as to whether Columbus ‘discovered’ America at all.
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This line links, and contrasts, with the previous paragraph. It makes the reader think: "Why is there any doubt that Columbus discovered America?". This is also the controlling idea of the paragraph |
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The continent Columbus reached by accident … |
This reminds you of the 1st paragraph |
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These people had lived in and worked the land for centuries prior to the arrival of Columbus and other explorers from Europe (Cassidy, 1992). |
This gives the reader evidence for doubting that Columbus ‘discovered’ America. I have used the authority of Cassidy to support what I want to say. |
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He simply visited a continent that had been hidden from Europe for thousands of years. |
Here I restate the main idea, having provided evidence, before giving evidence of another kind. |
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Even if we do agree with the ‘discovery theory’, |
The first part of the sentence allows for a broad understanding of ‘discover’ - one which was frequently used until recently. |
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many researchers have claimed that Central America was colonised by the Afro-Phoenicians almost 2000 years ago (Heyerdahl, 1993; Daily Illini Online, 1995). |
I now provide evidence (Heyerdahl & Daily Illini) to suggest that Africans sailed to America a long time before the Europeans. |
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Also, there are the theories that Vikings discovered Canada and New England in 1000 AD. If this theory is correct, Columbus was not even the first European to step on American soil (Wallace, 1996). |
Here is more evidence that Columbus was not the first to America. This time I use Wallace to support what I am saying. |
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However, we would need to save this discussion for another paper or essay. |
Here I am saying to the reader: "As you can see, this whole ‘discovery’ debate is very large, and we can not spend any more time on it here - I have more to say." |
Task 9: Acknowledging
Although I am not using the words of Wallace I have still acknowledged the source. How has this been done?
Task 10: Quotations
10.1 Choose a piece of your own writing. Find the original notes and sources.
10.2 Look at how you have used the ‘voices’ of other writers in your writing. If you have taken their words, show that you have quoted them directly.
10.3 If you have another voice in your own words make sure that you have acknowledged your source.
The third way to include another’s voice is by summarising what they said. Summarising is very much like indirect quotation, only you do not include as much detail as the original. When summarising you try to include another person’s main idea using your own words. It is very important that you still acknowledge the source, even though you are not using many of the words from the original source, because you still want to use their voice in your writing (see the essay "Using Other’s Voices").
Task 11: Summarising
11.1 Look at the sample essay as though it were a source (Gurr: 2000). Using your outline (Task 5.1) locate the main reasons why it is doubtful that Columbus discovered America, and the negative effects that his journeys produced.
11.2 Use the information form the outline to complete this paragraph:
The use of the term ‘discovery’ to describe Columbus’ journey to America has been criticised on two grounds. Firstly, .....
, and secondly .....
(Gurr: 2000). Further, even if Columbus discovered America (at least as far as European history books are concerned), this discovery had some tragic results. ....
(Gurr: 2000).
11.3 Return to the piece of writing you chose for task 9.
11.4 Look at how you have used the ‘voices’ of other writers in your writing. If you have summarised an argument, make sure that you have acknowledged your source.
In order to quote or summarise you need to show that you are using someone else’s voice. You can do this by using a reporting verb.
Task 12: Reporting Verbs
12.1 Look back at the sample essay. Which of the words from table 1 have been used? What effect does the reporting verb have on the summary or quotation?
12.2 Put the words from table 1 into the groups in table 2 (on the next page). A word may appear in more than one group. Try to group the words that remain.
12.3 Use a dictionary for the words that you do not know or are not sure about to find
a) what they mean
b) their grammar pattern
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acknowledge add admit advise agree allege announce answer argue ask assert assure call claim |
comment concede confess confirm contend continue convince declare deny describe discuss dispute enquire explain |
hint imply inform inquire insist instruct maintain mention note observe predict propose recommend record |
refuse remark remind repeat report request respond reveal say state stipulate suggest tell warn |
Table 1: Some of the most common reporting verbs that are used in academic and report writing. (adapted from Collins Cobuild English Grammar)
Table 2
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Group 1: Words which show objectivity |
Group 2: Words which are not definite / allow room for doubt |
Group 3: Words which could be used in informal speech |
Group 4: Words which reveal an opinion about what was said |
Group 5 |
Group 6 |
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