Intonation

Before reading this, you should review the section on stress.

If stress constitutes the rhythm of natural speech, intonation is the melody. Most of the melodies or tunes characteristic of English can be described using four notes, or tones or pitch levels, which are not absolute but relative to each other. I will identify these as follows:

blue low

black (no highlight) normal

yellow high

red extra-high

The most common tune or intonation pattern in English is rising-falling, or normal-high-low, e.g.:

How are you?

I’ll have cream and sugar.

I know more about it than he does.

The high note normally coincides with the last sentence stress, and the low note is carried by whatever follows. This can be part of a syllable (which is thereby lengthened and often diphthongized). (I will indicate this by breaking the word into two colors.)

The coffee is hot.

What time did you call?

The low note can also be carried over several syllables in the same word, by in several words:

The situation is difficult.

I said I couldn’t hear you.

What’s he studying it for?

In the case of compound nouns, where two elements receive sentence stress, the intonation shift coincides with the stress pattern, taking place over both elements:

I saw a blackbird.

I’d like a steak knife.

They’re checking accounts

as opposed to

I saw a black bird.

I’d like a steak dinner.

They’re checking accounts.

In the case of two-word verbs, where there are again two sentence stresses, the intonation pattern also coincides with the stress pattern, with phrasal verbs shifting on the second element

What are you looking up?

and prepositional verbs on the first

What are you looking for?

Rising-falling intonation is used in statements, commands, and wh-questions:

This is my wife.

He hasn’t said a word.

Come to see me.

What is the matter?

How are you feeling?

Why is he angry?

The second most common intonation pattern is rising, which is used in yes-no questions. In this case there is no fall in pitch at the end:

Is this is my wife?

Hasn’t he said a word?

Will you come to see me?

Is something the matter?

Are you feeling alright?

Is he angry?

These are both final intonation patterns because they occur at the end of sentences. There are also a number of patterns that can occur earlier (non-finally) in the sentence.

First of all, almost any word in a sentence can receive special stress for emphasis or contrast, and this word will also receive the high note:

What do you want with a car? (Since you can’t drive.)

There are lots of cigarettes in the box. (Why did you say there were none?)

He has an unusual number of friends. (He has more than a few friends.)

I think that is a good idea. (As opposed to the one you had yesterday.)

In comparisons, both elements of the comparison have sentence stress and a high note, but one (it doesn’t seem to matter which) will be slightly higher than the other:

Betty dances better than I do.

The new team is as good as the old one.

Within the same grammatical sentence, there can be more than one final intonation pattern:

I’ll tell you the truth: it can’t be done.

I don’t want to go: it’s dangerous.

I say he can; he says he can’t.

In order to indicate that the sentence or thought is not complete, the first pattern will not fall to low but to normal, or even (to create suspense) remain on the high note:

You say it’s easy, but you won’t try it.

If you want me to, I’ll call her.

When I come back, I’ll give you a present.

If you want to learn chemistry, you’ve got to work.

This occurs in series with and and or:

I went to the bank and/or the post office.

He speaks English, Italian, and/or French.

An extra-high note on one of the compared elements emphasizes the notion of contrast:

You can do it in writing or orally.

Do you prefer Los Angeles or San Francisco?

In simple yes-no questions with or, where no contrast or choice is implied, there can be one or two rising patterns:

Have you ever visited Los Angeles or San Francisco?

Sometimes the difference can be significant, since two rising patterns can turn a yes-no question into a choice (either-or) question:

Do you advocate the overthrow of the US government by force or by violence? (yes-no)

Do you advocate the overthrow of the US government by force or by violence? (either-or)

In direct address, the usual pattern is rising-normal, and is separate from the rest of the sentence, as in my friend, Mister Roberts, and Mother below:

I’m glad to see you, my friend.

Mister Roberts, how are you feeling?

What will we have for breakfast, Mother?

Tag questions are pronounced with rising intonation if they are real questions, with rising-falling intonation if the listener is expected to agree:

You’re hungry, aren’t you? (no answer expected)

You’re hungry, aren’t you? (agreement expected, answer “Yes”)

You’re not hungry, are you? (no answer expected)

You’re not hungry, are you? (agreement expected, answer “No”)

Returning to the point made earlier, almost any word in a sentence can receive the high note if it is understood with special or contrastive meaning:

Will you drive to the office tomorrow? (rather than someone else)

Will you drive to the office tomorrow? (rather than take the bus)

Will you drive to the office tomorrow? (as well as from the office)

Will you drive to the office tomorrow? (rather than to the bank)

Will you drive to the office tomorrow? (rather than next week)

This focusing mechanism is used to ask or answer specific questions

Was it you who did that? (or somebody else)

When do you hope to come back? (even though you don’t know)

I took the new car. (it was me, not Bill)

I took the new car. (did you take or reject it)

I took the new car. (instead of the old one)

and to contradict something previously said or implied

Yes, he is working hard. (how dare you say he’s not)

I want you to bring it to me. (and no one else)

Johnny will bring it to you. (he’ll bring it, not me)

I like this tape best. (not that one)

But we do believe you. (stop saying we don’t)

Many intonation patterns have an emotional significance, indicating surprise, disbelief, shock, fear, respect, determination, sarcasm, irony, friendliness, suspicion, etc. Some can be subdivided into more specific categories, such as those that express

intensity (extra-high rising-falling)

That’s terrible! (shock)

How amazing! (surprise)

She plays extremely well! (approval)

persuasion (falling-rising to normal)

Don’t behave like that.

Won’t you have dinner with us?

You don’t really need candy.

determination, with repeated falling tones

Don’t you behave like that!

We will not be deterred by criticism.

But there are many such patterns, and considerable disagreement about how to describe and categorize them.